Housing need and demand

Housing need and demand Q.2 In assessing current and future housing requirements how would you distinguish between the concepts of housing need and housing demand? Housing need and demand are planning issues for many countries around the world, it’s important that â€Å"adequate shelter is available and accessible to meet the needs of an ever-increasing population in many urban settlements† (David, 2002:31). The operation of the UK housing market has seen problems over recent years and is the focus of much discussion (Jones and Watkins, 2009:11). UK policies aim to address three major issues of housing shortages, housing quality and housing affordability. Housing markets can be complex, â€Å"housing markets should supply the right kind of units and the right time in the right places† (Downs, 2004:73). Failure to achieve this raises several implications that have been felt in UK. Even though housing shortage is arguably a symbol of success, growth and competiveness all vital to creating a successful economy (Tallon, 2010:216), it has obvious problems. This essay aims to explore more closely the difference between housing ne ed and demand as well as the factors they depend on for current and future housing requirements. By identifying the issues that housing need and demand depend upon, the essay will explain the effect this has particularly in the UK and some possible trends for the future. Finally the essay will critically explain several approaches to estimating housing requirements that take into account some of the issues raised. Housing need and housing demand can often be confused yet they have different meanings. Every household has a housing need irrespective of income or type of housing. Housing need is described as â€Å"the quantity of housing required to accommodation of the agreed minimum standard and above for a population given its size and household composition without taking into account the household `s ability to pay for the housing assigned to it† (Robinson, 1979:56-57). This is not be confused with housing demand which is defined as the relationship between â€Å"the price of housing and the quantity and quality of housing for which people are able and willing to pay† (Shucksmith, 2002:61). An individual or household has an unmet housing need when they fail to exercise effective demand for decent housing (Oxley, 2009:6). By satisfying housing need it enables the empowerment of people to be able to live in satisfactory housing despite their possible inability to afford it (Tighe and Mueller 2013:87). Most housing problems are essentially †problems of a lack of effective demand for decent housing† (Oxley, 2000:2), It is therefore vital that the correct housing is built to meet the needs of the population; this will increase the demand for housing and play a significant role in improving the economy. Housing need depends on various factors that will differ from country to country particularly in developing countries (Struyk, 1998:21). Firstly the population in the UK is growing; this creates greater numbers of households requiring more housing. â€Å"Household numbers for England are expected to grow by an average annual rate of 220,000 over the decade to 2021† (Wilcox and Perry, 2013:8) shown in Appendix A, as a result more housing must be built in order to accommodate this need. 122,590 new homes were started in 2013 which is a 23% increase from 2012 shown in appendix B (DCLG, 2014:4). Household numbers are rising due to population growth putting pressure on housing, infrastructure, schools and hospitals (Madden et al. 2010:3). Households are also changing, people are living longer meaning housing must cater for elderly people, building more retirement housing could consequently free up family homes for young people thus solving some housing need issues (Best and Porteus , 2012:3). Longer life expectancy means Households are staying together for longer, it’s now suggested that 60% of over 60`s own their home outright (DCLG, 2013:18). Households have different housing needs, not everyone demands a one bedroom house for example the most common household between 2011-12 was couples with no dependent children accounting for 35% of the population (DCLG, 2013:18). Household patterns are constantly changing over time, its vital therefore that the correct housing is supplied to meet current and future needs, the number of one-person households is expected to grow in the UK by 60% by 2025-30 and as a result this must be addressed (OECD, 2011:29). The standard of living is increasing in the UK; this means that people now expect more from their homes. Some countries have now â€Å"shifted from increasing the number of units to increasing the quality of units† (Noguchi and Poterba, 1994:224), certain amenities such as double glazing windows used to be a luxury now it is almost expected in most properties. â€Å"Quality and affordability are key for housing in a western society† (Pacione, 2009:215), the minimum standard of housing is rising meaning there is a requirement for ‘decent, safe and secure housing both with new builds and renovations` (GLA, 2013),†Poor housing impacts directly on residents’ health and educational attainment† emphasising the need for quality housing (Wilson, 2010:76). This not only an issue of new homes but also of existing housing both with social housing and in the private rented sector, many existing social houses were built decades ago and therefore their condit ion may be lacking in standard. Vale (2013:114) explains another pressure on housing standards, the increasing pressure to build environmentally friendly and efficient housing. One of the main elements to assessing housing needs is to examine existing stock as â€Å"existing stock usually accounts for the majority of dwelling stocks† (Xue, 2013:65), of which in wales 83% is in the private sector (welsh Government, 2008:26). Current stock must be reviewed when considering calculating housing requirements for the present and future; this is explained later in the essay. This finally leads onto the type housing needed; â€Å"the biggest problem is that as a country we are simply not building enough affordable homes† (Shelter, 2013) and therefore the public needs are not met, the type of houses build should also reflect the population’s household structure. Housing demand is affected by several separate issues to housing need, understanding these issues is important for current and future demand to be met. Firstly and most importantly the supply of housing is not addressing the UK’s demand, â€Å"there are not enough affordable houses in the economy† (HCTC, 2013:75). The Government sets targets for the number of houses which need to be built yet these are rarely met and the demand keeps increasing, â€Å"almost half of Londons largest developments are not meeting the affordable housing targets being set by local authorities† (BBC, 2013). Despite its importance, â€Å"housing is yet to have the same political profile as health and education† (Wilson, 2010:76). One of the main issues with regards to housing demand not being met is that private developers will not build housing they won’t be able to sell and therefore another reason for more affordable housing (Empty Homes, 2014). Housing supply must be c alculated for development, for example taking deaths and existing stock into consideration. House prices also affect housing demand, there are not enough houses being supplied at the right price to meet the demand therefore the price of housing rises as people who have money will pay to have a nice house resulting in â€Å"increasing numbers of people being priced out of the market† (Stephens, 2011:6). â€Å"Falling house prices due to the recession have not solved the problem of affordability as they have been accompanied by tighter lending criteria† (Wilson, 2010) especially with deposits, as a result the help to buy scheme was introduced. Housing demand depends on several other factors such as income and wealth, these terms are very different to an economist; wealth represents the accumulation of economic resources valuable to a household where income is a flow measure of capital over a period of time (Pozdena, 1988:25). Wealth and income can give access to credit loans and mortgages, â€Å"credit access and mortgage availability go a long way to promoting higher quality and affordable housing† (Nothaft and Erbas, 2002:12). Due to the credit crisis many people’s income and wealth have been affected, this has had an effect on the housing market and people’s ability to demand housing. Secondly the availability of credit and obtaining mortgages is something that has resulted in households being unable to afford housing. Lenders look at current income and financial assets because they represent measurable indicators of a borrower’s means of repaying the loan (Pozdena, 1988:26). The supply of mo ney in the economy will affect mortgage interest rates and availability. â€Å"People are getting second jobs when interest rates rise to cope with higher mortgage repayments† (Telegraph, 2013), as a result this has led to many people not being able to afford the housing supplied. There are many factors contributing to housing need and demand however â€Å"different needs may warrant different solutions† (Bramley et al, 2010:17), not everyone needs to be provided with social accommodation perhaps the issue can be solved by enhancing or adapting an existing property. As a result there are several different models that can be used to assess housing requirements. The first approach to be discussed is the household and dwelling balance sheet, this is a simple way to reveal housing shortages or surpluses (DoE, 1980:56), it simply compares the number of households to the number of dwellings. This method may show a shortage or surplus however doesn’t take into account many other factors such as home ownership, the location, nature of dwellings or condition of housing. As a result the balance sheet can prove inaccurate and â€Å"tend to double count or overestimate requirements† (Monk and Whitehead, 2010:60). The second approach is the net-stock a pproach which is characterised by Holmans (1995)(Whitehead and kleinman, 1992), it consists of measuring different types of need and forecasting household growth, estimating housing need for the present and future. The model â€Å"exemplifies the important link between household growth, need and housing investment† (Kleinman et al, 1998:78). Third is the affordability approach, the aim of this is to identify the relationship between house prices and household income to determine housing requirements (WMRA, 2014), it is calculated by taking the percentage of households unable to purchase plus household formation minus social sector relets which equals the additional housing requirements. The model however â€Å"does not purport to measure needs relating to house condition or unsuitability within the social sector† (Bramley 2010:38). The final method is the gross flows approach. Used to create current housing need, this is calculated by taking â€Å"Gross household formation by category, and adding the tenure propensity of each category to arrive at the demand for social housing from new households† (Pinto, 1995:75). This was used by the Greater London Authority for the London housing capacity study (Livingstone, 2005), it provided an ambitious growth plan where a regional housing growth target was set for 45 7,959 houses to be provided from 1997-2016 (Manzi, 2010:107).The concept is effective as it uses actual behaviour such as age and cohort effects rather than affordability norm (Boelhouwer et al., 2005:103). Quantity, quality and affordability are at the heart of housing need and demand issues in the UK and must be addressed in order to meet current and future housing requirements. This essay has defined the difference between housing demand and housing need and provided insight into the factors in which they depend on. Changes in the population and households are guaranteed to change in the future and therefore must be taken into consideration. Housing demand is mainly affected by the price of housing and the factors surrounding it such as supply and income, addressing these factors has led to not only solving current needs and demands but also the importance of planning for the future. This has been shown through the explanation of several different models displaying ways of estimating future and present housing requirements such as the net-stock approach or affordability approach. In conclusion for current housing needs and demands to be met larger amounts of housing must be provided at a price that is affordable and of a good quality, by setting and reaching targets this will hopefully meet the needs and demands of the present and the future. Appendices Appendix A (Wilcox and Perry, 2013:8) Appendix B (DCLG, 2014:4) Bibliography BBC (2013) [ONLINE] http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-24449898 (Assessed 7/3/2014). Best, R, Porteus, J. (2012) â€Å"Housing our Ageing Population: Plan for Implementation†, All part parliamentary group on housing and care for older people. Boelhouwer, P, Doling, J, Elsinga, M. (2005) â€Å"Home Ownership: Getting In, Getting From, Getting Out, Part 1†, Delft University Press. Bramley, G, Pawson, H, White, M, Watkins, D. (2010) â€Å"Estimating housing need†, Department of communities and local government. David, P, A. (2002) â€Å"Report of colloquium on contribution of the co-operative sector to housing development†, UN-HABITAT. DCLG (Department of communities and Local Government). (2013) â€Å"English Housing Survey households 2011-12†, DCLG. DCLG (Department of communities and Local Government). (2014) â€Å"House Building: December Quarter 2013, England†, DCLG. DoE (Department of Environment). (1980) â€Å"Housing requirements: a guide to information and techniques†, University of Bristol School for Advanced Urban Studies. Downs, A. (2004) â€Å"Growth Management and Affordable Housing: Do They Conflict?†, The Brookings Institution . Empty Homes (2014). [ONLINE] â€Å" http://www.emptyhomes.com/what-you-can-do-2/get-involved/what-to-do-with-your-empty-home/ (Assessed – 07/03/2014). GLA (Greater London Authority). (2010) [ONLINE] http://www.london.gov.uk/priorities/housing-land/improving-quality (Assessed 6/3/2014.) HCTC (House of Commons Treasury Committee). (2013) â€Å"Budget 2013: Ninth Report of Session 2012-13†, House of Commons. Holmans, A. (1995) â€Å"Housing demand and need in England 1991-2011†, Joseph Rowntree foundation. Jones, C, Watkins, C. (2009) â€Å"Housing markets and planning policy†, Wiley-Blackwell. Kleinman, M, Matznetter, W, Stephens, M. (1998) â€Å"European Integration and Housing Policy†, Routledge. Livingstone, K. (2005) â€Å"2004 London Housing Capacity study†, Greater London Authority. Madden, P, Goodman, J, Green, J, Jenkinson, C. (2010) â€Å"Growing Pains: Population and Sustainability in the UK†, Forum for the Future. Manzi, T, Lucas, K, Jones, T, Allen, J. (2010) â€Å"Social Sustainability in Urban Areas: Communities, Connectivity and the Urban Fabric†, Earthscan. Monk, S, Whitehead, C. (2010) â€Å"Making Housing more Affordable: The role of intermediate tenures†, Wiley-Blackwell. Noguchi, Y, Poterba, J, M. (1994) â€Å"Housing Markets in the United States and Japan†, The University of Chicago Press. Nothaft F, E, Erbas, S, N. (2002) â€Å"The Role of Affordable Mortgages in Improving Living Standards and stimulating growth†, IMF Working paper. OECD (organisation for economic co-operation and development). (2011) â€Å"Doing Better for Families†, OECD Publishing. Oxley, M. (2000) â€Å"The Future of Social Housing: Learning from Europe†, IPPR. Oxley, M. (2009) â€Å"Financing Affordable Social Housing in Europe†, UN-HABITAT. Pacione, M. (2009) â€Å"Urban Geography: A Global Perspective†, Routledge. Pinto, R. (1995) â€Å"Developments in Housing Management and Ownership†, Manchester university press. Pozdena, R, J. (1988) â€Å"The Modern Economics of Housing: A Guide to Theory and Policy for Finance and Real Estate professionals†, Greenwood Press. Robinson, R. (1997) â€Å"Housing economics and public policy†, Macmillan. Shucksmith, M. (2002) â€Å"House building in Britains Countryside†, Routledge. Shelter (2013) [ONLINE] http://england.shelter.org.uk/campaigns/why_we_campaign/Improving_social_housing/Why_we_need_more_social_housing (Assessed 6/3/2014). Stephens, M. (2011) â€Å"Tackling housing market volatility in the UK†, Joseph Roundtree Foundation Struyk, R, J. (1988) â€Å"Assessing Housing Needs and Policy Alternatives in Developing Countries†, The Urban Institute Press. Tallon, A. (2010) â€Å"Urban Regeneration in the UK†, Routledge. Telegraph (2013) [ONLINE] http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/personalfinance/interest-rates/10529164/Millions-of-homeowners-may-need-second-job-if-interest-rates-rise-BoE-warns.html (Assessed 7/3/2014). Tighe, R, J, Mueller, E, J. (2013) â€Å"The Affordable Housing Reader†, Routledge. Vale, J, L. (2013) â€Å"Purging the Poorest: Public Housing and the Design Politics of Twice-Cleared communities†, Routledge. Welsh Government (2008) â€Å"Affordable Housing in Wales: Report to Deputy Minister for Housing and Regeneration†(â€Å"Essex Report†), Cardiff, WG. WMRA (West Midlands Regional Assembly)(2014) [ONLINE] http://www.wmra.gov.uk/documents/Chapter%204.pdf (Assessed 11/3/2014). Whitehead, C, Kleinman, M. (1992) â€Å"A Review of Housing Needs Assessment†, The Housing Corporation. Wilcox, S, Perry, J. (2013) â€Å"UK Housing Review Briefing Paper†, Chartered Institute of Housing†, The University of Chicago Press. Wilson, W. (2010) â€Å"Key issues for the new parliament 2010: Housing supply and demand†, The House of Commons. Xue, J. (2013) â€Å"Economic Growth and Sustainable Housing: An Uneasy Relationship†, Routledge.

Creativity in Alice Walkers Color Purple Essay -- Color Purple Essays

Expressing Creativity in The Color Purple  Ã‚     Ã‚   In Alice Walker's The Color Purple, many characters at some point find a way of expressing their artistic creativity. For instance, Celie makes pants, and Shug Avery and Mary Agnes sing. But what is the significance of expressing creativity? If there is a relationship between artistic expression and one's personal development, what exactly is this relationship? I wish to answer these questions by examining Celie's case in particular. The key to the first question lies in the comment Albert makes on life while sewing with Celie on the porch, "If you ast yourself why you black or a man or a woman or a bush it don't mean nothing if you don't ast why you here, period" (289-290). It is about existence, about why we are here. However, this existence is not confirmed by others' acknowledgement. Rather, it depends only on one's awareness of one's own existence. Coming to such recognition, however, is a gradual process divided into several different stages. It starts with a power of creativity within a character (in the context of this novel, primarily a female character) that is unnoticed but screams to be released. When the character, usually with the inspiration of a role model, finds a vent for her creativity, it gushes out like a fountain. The character is often surprised at the art she is capable of creating, and soon comes to admire her own creation and creativity. From here she gains confidence, and comes to realize that she is here for a divine purpose: to express a beauty that God has created. In Walker’s essay "In Search of Our mothers" Gardens, she talks about the black mothers or grandmothers who are torn by their own creativity: These grandmothers and mothe... .... In making pants, she understands and affirms her own existence, and comes close to God. Walker, through the story of Celie, describes for us a process of development. It is a search into oneself for the purpose of one's existence. The answer is that we all possess a creative power that is divine, and when we find it, recognize it, and express it, we show that we are, each of us, God, who creates beauty and loves all.    Works Cited Walker, Alice. In Search of Our Mothers Gardens. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1983. - - -. The Color Purple. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1982.    Other Works Consulted Bloom, Harold ed. Alice Walker (Modern Critical Views). New York: Chelsea, 1989. Dixon, Melvin. Ride Out the Wilderness: Geography and Identity in Afro-American Literature. Chicago: Univ. of Illinois Press, 1987.    Creativity in Alice Walker's Color Purple Essay -- Color Purple Essays Expressing Creativity in The Color Purple  Ã‚     Ã‚   In Alice Walker's The Color Purple, many characters at some point find a way of expressing their artistic creativity. For instance, Celie makes pants, and Shug Avery and Mary Agnes sing. But what is the significance of expressing creativity? If there is a relationship between artistic expression and one's personal development, what exactly is this relationship? I wish to answer these questions by examining Celie's case in particular. The key to the first question lies in the comment Albert makes on life while sewing with Celie on the porch, "If you ast yourself why you black or a man or a woman or a bush it don't mean nothing if you don't ast why you here, period" (289-290). It is about existence, about why we are here. However, this existence is not confirmed by others' acknowledgement. Rather, it depends only on one's awareness of one's own existence. Coming to such recognition, however, is a gradual process divided into several different stages. It starts with a power of creativity within a character (in the context of this novel, primarily a female character) that is unnoticed but screams to be released. When the character, usually with the inspiration of a role model, finds a vent for her creativity, it gushes out like a fountain. The character is often surprised at the art she is capable of creating, and soon comes to admire her own creation and creativity. From here she gains confidence, and comes to realize that she is here for a divine purpose: to express a beauty that God has created. In Walker’s essay "In Search of Our mothers" Gardens, she talks about the black mothers or grandmothers who are torn by their own creativity: These grandmothers and mothe... .... In making pants, she understands and affirms her own existence, and comes close to God. Walker, through the story of Celie, describes for us a process of development. It is a search into oneself for the purpose of one's existence. The answer is that we all possess a creative power that is divine, and when we find it, recognize it, and express it, we show that we are, each of us, God, who creates beauty and loves all.    Works Cited Walker, Alice. In Search of Our Mothers Gardens. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1983. - - -. The Color Purple. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1982.    Other Works Consulted Bloom, Harold ed. Alice Walker (Modern Critical Views). New York: Chelsea, 1989. Dixon, Melvin. Ride Out the Wilderness: Geography and Identity in Afro-American Literature. Chicago: Univ. of Illinois Press, 1987.   

Three Important Symbols in The Glass Menagerie by Tennessee Williams Es

Three Important Symbols in The Glass Menagerie by Tennessee Williams      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In Tennessee Williams' The Glass Menagerie, the narrator is used to reveal elements of Williams' own life as a victim of the Depression in the 1930s. Williams does this through his eloquent use of symbolism. Three symbols seem to reveal Williams' intent especially accurately; the unicorn, the picture of Mr. Wingfield, and Malvolio's coffin trick.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The unicorn is a symbolic representation of ways that Laura is unique or unusual.   The first facet of the unicorn, its horn, refers to ways that Laura is an unusual person, such as in her may escape mechanisms.   Laura's escape devices include her glass menagerie, list... ...ness in the Plays of Tennessee Williams. Bowling Green: Bowling Green State University, 1997.    Presley, Delma. The Glass Menagerie: An American Memory. Boston: Twayne, 1990.    http://www.olemiss.edu/depts/english/ms-writers/dir/williams_tennessee    Williams, Tennessee. "The Glass Menagerie". New York: Random House, 1985.

John Steinbeck’s The Chrysanthemums Essay -- John Steinbeck The Chrysa

In John Steinbeck’s The Chrysanthemums, the reader is introduced to the seemingly timid and shy Elisa Allen. Elisa is routinely planting her yearly sets of Chrysanthemums, which appear to be the sole receptor of her caring and gentle touch, but all the while it is evident that â€Å"the chrysanthemum stems seemed too small and easy for her energy.† Her hidden eagerness seems not only out of place, but out of touch with her dry and wilted surroundings, of which her husband, Henry, abruptly interrupts her steady pace. Inquiring of dinner plans, he is quickly shuttered  out, so that Elisa can continue her work in the fenced in flower bed. This seems to be the only place on the ranch that belongs to her, and thus devoting the entirety of her time, and consideration, towards this lonely sandy square.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  It isn’t long before another interruption comes cluttering up to country road toward the Allen Ranch. This time it comes in the form of a worn wagon, drawn by two mismatched horses, and a large rugged man sitting behind the reins. Elisa appears to be somewhat static as she introduces herself to the peddler, making it known that he is drawing her away from her duties. But the peddler, who is just trying to find something to fix-up for money, sparks a vigor in Elisa, and she suddenly gains interest in everything he says, as benign as it may be. This peddler, who merely altered Elisa’s routine, has immediately altered her life. The change in routine is the first in many years for her...

Firefighter Employment Scenario Essay

Although it’s not clear in the story whether an associates degree is a precondition for taking the exam, in your opinion, should a degree be a requirement to sit for the exam? Yes Why or why not? A Fire science degree should be a requirement to take the test. It shows that the fire fighter it trying to improve him or her self and become more knowledgeable of their craft. It also shows that they are committed to their career. Working and going to school is not an easy thing to do. Like the question states we do not know if the degree is required to sit the exam, if not stated as a requirements, then the degree should not be a factor in the selection process. Based on the fact that Doug and Sam earned the first and second highest test scores, is it a reasonable assumption that the city of Davis will add Doug and Sam to the certification list? Yes Why or why not? According to what we know of the information provided they should both be on the list. They have both meet the requirements to sit for the exam and scored the two best scores. Can the City successfully defend itself on the basis of â€Å"disparate impact?† Yes Why or why not? The city did will not effect anyone of a protected class, under Title VII Once disparate impact is established, the employer must justify the continued use of the procedure or procedures causing the adverse impact as a â€Å"business necessity.† Under what circumstances may racial discrimination be proved by â€Å"disparate impact?† One does not need to be direct about the discrimination. Example would be â€Å"Whites only need to apply†.

Administrative Justice

Due process model advocates that an individual cannot be denied life, liberty, or property in the absence of legal safeguards and procedures. The rights of individuals charged with crimes ought to be safeguarded by the criminal justice system.Arrestees are treated as innocent until proven otherwise by a court of law. Policing is paramount to the maintenance of justice within society. The primary objective of criminal justice is to facilitate due process and basic legal fairness.The Bill of Rights advocates for defendants’ rights protection and hence this model emphasizes the same (http://www.cliffsnotes.com/WileyCDA/CliffsReviewTopic/Which-Model-Crime-Control-or-Due-Process.topicArticleId-10065,articleId-9911.html)Due process model holds that police powers ought to be curtailed to prevent official oppression of citizens. The model stresses the possibility of errors in police informal, non-judgmental investigations.   Criminal justice dispensers should be accountable to proce dures, regulations and guidelines to facilitate consistency and justice in the justice system.Criminal justice procedures are viewed as obstruction processes comprised of a succession of impediments in form of procedural defenses that protect the factually innocent in the same way they convict the factually guilty. It is advocated that an individual should be declared guilty only if legal processes are adhered to but not merely based on facts.Due process notes that people’s memories are notoriously poor as regards disturbing happenings. Highly emotional contexts will likely lead to inaccurate recollections. Confessions by individuals in police custody will more likely yield information that is distorted to favor what the person thinks the authorities prefer to hear.The truth is thus shielded. The model thus advocates for public hearing of a case by an impartial tribunal and rulings made only after the accused has had a chance to defend themselves (Shanahan, 1977, p.376).Crime control perspective assumes total reliability of police informal investigations and views arrestees as already guilty and liable to government punishment. The ability of analytical and prosecutorial agencies to produce and reconstruct a bearably precise account of what really transpired is given much weight.Arresting of suspects is viewed to be negative in that it drags the criminal justice system. The model holds that the suppression of crime should be the most paramount aspect of criminal justice since order is crucial in a free society. Safeguarding the rights of victims takes precedence over protecting the rights of defendants.The police ought to be granted more powers to facilitate investigation, searches, arrests, seizing and conviction of suspects. Legal hindrances that restrict police activities ought to be done away with (Shanahan, 1977, p.377).The failure of law enforcement agencies to tightly control crime is viewed to result in breakdown of social order thus eliminating a crucial aspect of freedom. A generalized disregard of lawful controls crops up if   there is a wide perception of elevated failure to arrest and convict offenders.   The civil individual then suffers from illegal invasions on his welfare and high insecurity.The crime control viewpoint proposes that criminal justice procedures should be swiftly and efficiently executed and disposed off. Arrested suspects are presumed guilty since this model highly rates the reliability of police investigations reports. The primary objective of criminal justice system is to find out the truth or to realistically determine the guilt of the accused.Crime control model signifies conservative values while the due process model reflects liberal values. Assessment of values is required so as to prove one model superior to the other. The policy to be applied depends on the prevailing political environment. due process policies predominated the liberal 1960s whereas conservatism 1970s and early 20th ce ntury were characterized by crime control model.The concept of equality has gained popularity as the basis for agitating for implementation of the due process model. The existence of gross inequalities occasioned by financial means of defendants calls for mobilization of resources to shield the accused to prevent their denial of credible defense. The due process model is thus evidently the approach that is likely to be popular in future (Oliver, 2008, p.135). ReferencesCriminal justice: Which model? Crime control or due process –cliff notes. Retrieved on 28th February 2009 from http://www.cliffsnotes.com/WileyCDA/CliffsReviewTopic/Which-Model-Crime-Control-or-Due-Process.topicArticleId-10065,articleId-9911.html.Oliver, W. M. (2008). Catholic perspectives on crime and criminal justice. Lanham, Maryland, USA: Lexington Books.Shanahan, D (1977). The Administration of Justice: An Introduction. London: Routledge

BIBL 104

Matthew is the first of the four gospels of the New Testament. Largely narrative material, this first gospel serves as the connection between the Old and New Testaments, providing an understanding of how Jesus fulfilled all the various prophecies about his coming that are found in the Old Testament. Possibly written in the A. D. 70s, though some believe it could have been written ten to twenty years earlier, the gospel of Matthew covers the entire span of Jesus’ life, death, and resurrection, concluding with Jesus giving the disciples their mission of going out and spreading the word of God.Geared primarily towards Jewish readers, the goal of the text was to provide them with irrefutable proof that the long-awaited Messiah had come to usher in the kingdom of God on Earth. Mark The second of the four gospels, the gospel of Mark is largely narrative and goes at a fast pace. Unlike the gospel of Matthew, which begins with the birth of Jesus and progresses through his life, Mark b egins with John the Baptist prophesying about Jesus, followed by the baptism of Jesus by John. It progresses from this point on to the end of his life.The focus of the text is on the many parables Jesus told and the miracles he performed during his period of ministry, which lasted a total of three years. The text was written by John Mark, son of a widow in Jerusalem whose home was most likely a meeting place for early Christians, who got his information from the disciple Peter. Written possibly as early as A. D. 50 and as late as A. D. 65, the text has a distinctly non-Jewish feel to it, and thus may have been written for Christians in Rome.Mark wrote it with the goal of offering encouragement to these Christians, who were suffering at the hands of the Romans, particularly the emperor. Mark, through his writings, presents Jesus as the suffering Messiah, as well as the Savior of the entire world, regardless of race or religion. Luke The third of the four gospels, the gospel of the Lu ke is largely narrative, and is the most elaborate in regards to the details of the life of Jesus. It begins with the prophecy regarding the birth of John the Baptist, progressing from that point on to the events surrounding the birth, life, and death of Jesus.Luke has the widest range of information with regard to the parables, miracles, and teachings of Jesus. Some of the more familiar parables include the parable of the sower, the parable of the Good Samaritan, the parable of the ten virgins, the parable of the prodigal son, and the parable of the ten talents. Some of the more familiar miracles include the healing of the Roman centurion’s servant, the feeding of the five thousand, the transformation of water into wine, the raising of Lazarus, and the raising of daughter of Jairus. Possibly written between A. D.59 to 63, or maybe fifteen to twenty years later, the goal Luke had in writing this gospel was to put forth the message that the love of God is not just for Jews, bu t for everyone who believes in him. John The final of the four gospels, the gospel of John is largely narrative. It is believed that it was written sometime between A. D. 80 and 95. However, there are those who believe that it was written as early as the A. D. 50s and no later than A. D. 70. Like Mark, John begins his gospel with John the Baptist baptizing Jesus, and progressing from this point on up to the death and resurrection of Jesus.Written at a time when non-Jewish followers of Jesus were being bombarded with the Greek theory that Jesus was divine but not truly human, the purpose of this gospel being written was so that the people would believe that Jesus truly was the Son of God, and that he was the word made into flesh. One particular aspect that sets this gospel apart from the other three is the inclusion of several sermons Jesus gave during his three-year ministry, none of which are found in the other three gospels. Acts Written by Luke around A. D.63 to 70 to Theophilus, who may have been a particular person or a reference to the Christians in general, the book of Acts is largely historical narrative written in the form of a letter. Covering the period from Pentecost, as well as the early stages of the disciples going out and preaching the word of God, the text can be viewed as the sequel to the Gospels. Within it is an explanation by Luke regarding the incredible growth of the early Christian church, as well as a discussion regarding the source of conflict between Jewish and Gentile Christians, both of whom would be brought together eventually through their mutual love of Christ.One of the key events within the text is the martyrdom of the disciple Stephen, now known as Saint Stephen. He is one of many that Luke writes about who die for their belief in Christ. Romans The book of Romans is the first of thirteen letters, or epistles, written by the apostle Paul to various non-Jewish Christian communities, in which he offers them advice and expounds on the teachings of Christ. Written sometime in A. D. 57, and largely narrative conversation, it was geared to the mostly Gentile followers of Christ living in Rome.His goal in writing this particular letter was three-fold. First, he wanted to introduce himself to the Christian community in Rome and garner their help in spreading the gospel. Second, he wanted to develop, expand, and defend the gospel message he was preaching. Finally, he wanted to encourage the Roman Christians to depend solely on God for their salvation. In this way, they would better realize and understand that they can become righteous and be transformed through believing in Christ. To that end, the main themes of the text are faith, grace, righteousness, and justification.As a result, this text best serves those seeking spiritual renewal, and played a pivotal role in the development of the belief held by Martin Luther – that faith alone justifies – and thus in the Protestant Reformation, which fore ver changed Christianity. 1 Corinthians The second of thirteen letters offering advice and expounding on the teachings of Christ, Paul wrote this letter to the Christian community in Corinth around A. D. 54 to 55. Within two to three years after starting the Christian community in Corinth, Paul got word that there was a great deal of strife within the young church.There were those who had become spiritually arrogant, which in turn led to problems such as sexual misconduct, mistreatment of fellow believers, abuse of spiritual gifts, and a general misconstruing of the basic teachings of Christ. Thus, Paul wrote this letter to help restore balance to the young Christian community, giving them simple and straightforward advice on what needed to be done to restore unity within their church. Thus, the text contains information concerning Christian living, relationships within the church, spiritual gifts, love, and the teachings of Christ – all of which are still relevant today.2 Co rinthians The third of thirteen letters offering advice and expounding on the teachings of Christ, this was a follow-up letter written to the Corinthian Christian community around A. D. 55. Due to an uprising within the community, Paul felt obliged to write this letter to accomplish the following: the calming of various disagreements within the community, the restoration of unity within the community, and the reestablishment of Paul’s role as the leader of the community.Various themes covered in the text include the following: how to handle dissension within the church, false teaching, church leadership, the plight of other Christian communities, and financial support of the church and the poor. Paul also discusses the hopes, fears, and assurances he has for the Corinthian church and their relationship with God. Galatians The fourth of thirteen letters offering advice and expounding on the teachings of Christ, the letter was written by Paul to the Christian community in Galat ia, a Roman province in what is now central Turkey. Written around A.D. 48 to 53, just under 25 years after Jesus was on Earth, the letter was meant to denounce and correct the false teachings cropping up in the churches that Paul and his fellow disciple – Barnabas – had established. The letter was also written by Paul as a method of defending his integrity as an apostle of Christ, which had been questioned and attacked, and also to reassert the love he had for the Galatians. This text goes back to the basics of Christianity and its teachings, focusing on what the gospel is, how it is received, and how it can be applied to daily living.Paul accomplishes through a variety of techniques, such as illustrations from his life and that of Abraham, to encourage the Galatians to return to the pure gospel and avoid the legalism that false teachers were pushing on them. Ephesians The fifth of thirteen letters offering advice and expounding on the teachings of Christ, it was writ ten by Paul sometime during his imprisonment in Rome, around A. D. 60 to 62. The goal was to provide encouragement to the Christians of Ephesus to view themselves in a whole new way.They had once been idol-worshipers, involving in pagan activities and adhering to foolish philosophies. Now, Paul wanted them to realize that they were people in Christ. The text provides insight into what God wants for his followers, stresses unity within the church and among its believers, and provides the usual practical advice with regard to Christian living. Philippians The sixth of thirteen letters offering advice and expounding on the teachings of Christ, it was written by Paul around A. D. 60 to 62, while Paul was under house arrest awaiting trial regarding an appeal to the Emperor Nero.Philippi was the first place in European that Paul had begun a church, sometime around A. D. 50. He eventually moved on, but the people continued to express their devotion to him by offering aid to him whenever th ey could. Thus, when he was under house arrest, they sent him money to help with his living expenses. The letter was written to thank them for the help, as well as to warn them against false teachers and to urge them to be more unified. The text also contains one of the most prominent psalms of the Bible regarding praise to and for Jesus (2:5-11).Finally, it contains practical advice to help one reshape his or her thinking according to the ways of God. Colossians The seventh of thirteen letters offering advice and expounding on the teachings of Christ, it was also written during the time Paul was under house arrest. Geared toward the small Christian community founded by Epaphras, one of Paul’s disciples, in the small city of Colosse, the goal of the letter was emphasize the supremacy of Christ, which was being challenged by the appearance of a new religious philosophy called Gnosticism.This new philosophy was a mixture of Christian, Jewish and pagan beliefs that were beginnin g to take hold. Paul’s intention was to make it clear that the nature, identity, deity, and authority of Christ were unquestionable and unparalleled. Other aspects also touched on in the text include the various ways that one can develop and maintain attitudes and actions that honor Christ. 1 Thessalonians The eighth of thirteen letters offering advice and expounding on the teachings of Christ, this letter was written by Paul sometime around A. D. 50 to the Christian community in Thessalonica.Founded during his second missionary journey, Paul had been forced to leave the community due to violence and opposition against him. When he later received news of how well the community was thriving, he wrote this letter to them to commend them on their success, but also to advise them to clear up any misunderstandings that existed. The text thus provides guidelines on how Christians can live a holy life even if surrounded by hostility to their religious beliefs. It also touches on the aspect of eternal life, offering clues about the end times and the return of Christ to the Earth.2 Thessalonians The ninth of thirteen letters offering advice and expounding on the teachings of Christ, this second letter was written not too long after the first. Paul wrote it due to the impression he got that the Thessalonicans needed an extra dose of his advice with regard to their community. Several themes are touched upon in this letter: suffering, work, and the end times. This letter, in conjunction with the first one, provide for Christians then and now, a great deal of information with regard to what will happen in the end times.It could be said to be a precursor to the book of Revelations, which goes into greater detail about the end times. Finally, the text reminds all Christians that, though our earthly life is terminal, we have the hope of living eternally with Christ. 1 Timothy The tenth of thirteen letters offering advice and expounding on the teachings of Christ, this letter is different in that it was geared toward on specific person rather than a whole community. Timothy was a protege of Paul’s, and was now the leader of a small Christian community that was going through difficult times.Written shortly after Paul was released from jail sometime around A. D. 63 to 65, the letter offered Timothy specific guidelines on how to organize and run the church, as well as offered various practical solutions with regard to believers developing stronger relationships among themselves, as well as with their leaders and the world at large. Thus, the ultimate theme of the text is that a church requires unity in order to survive and prosper. 2 Timothy The eleventh of thirteen letters offering advice and expounding on the teachings of Christ, this second letter to Timothy was written around A. D.66 to 67, when Paul was once again in a Roman prison. This time, however, it was clear he would die in that prison. As a result, many of the people who had suppo rted him had now turned away from him. This letter, then, is considered to be one of the last written by Paul. In it, he demonstrates his concern not just for Timothy, but also for the Christian churches overall. He offers encouragement to the faithful, discusses various teachings of Christ and events that will occur in the last days of time, and ends with him giving Timothy his assignment – to spread the word of God – and closing remarks. TitusThe twelfth of thirteen letters offering advice and expounding on the teachings of Christ, it was written to Titus by Paul sometime between A. D. 63 to 65, during his travels following his first release from prison. Titus was a protege of Paul, and had helped him start, organize, and lead several churches throughout the eastern half of the Roman Empire. The letter contains advice for Titus, who was now a young leader of a troubled church on the island of Crete. In it, Paul tells Titus to refute and ignore all false teachers, to work for the unity of his church, and to find good leaders for the church.It also provides guidelines for living a godly life, and emphasizes the power of faith with regarding to overcoming the problems of division and disharmony within the church. Finally, it puts forth the point that does who persevere in the face of difficulty will reap the benefits and rewards of their perseverance. Philemon The last of the thirteen letters offering advice and expounding on the teachings of Christ, it was written to Philemon by Paul between A. D. 60 and 62, while he was in prison. Philemon was a wealthy Christian who was part of the church at Colosse. One of his slaves – Onesimus – had run away from him.This same slave had come in contact with Paul while both were in a Roman prison. While there, Onesimus became a follower of Christ. After this, Paul decided to send the young man back to his former master, along with this letter asking for Philemon to forgive Onesimus. The hope Paul had was that Philemon would become a living example of the grace that all Christians receive through Christ. Thus, the text provides a riveting tale of the cost of asking for and granting forgiveness. It also demonstrates how important it is for Christians to realize they are all equal and acceptable in the eyes of Christ.Hebrews Hebrews is the first of eight additional letters within the New Testament. Written between A. D. 60 and 70, the author is not identified. Possible suggestions could be Paul, Barnabas, Luke, or Apollos. The purpose of the letter was to warn the early Jewish believers in and followers of Christ, who were suffering continual persecution, against reverting back to their Old Testament way of life. Throughout the letter, the author uses vivid illustrations from the Old Testament to demonstrate what God had done through Christ.There are strong emotional appeals to the Hebrews, the name initially used to refer to the Jews before they were called Israelites, to mai ntain the new covenant they had with Christ rather than revert back to the old one that had been made in the days of Noah, Abraham, and Jacob. These various connections and contrasts between the Old and New Testaments are meant to demonstrate the superiority of Christ and the new covenant made with him. Ultimately, the letter is meant to inspire all who read it to maintain their faith in Christ in all situations.James James is the second of eight additional letters within the New Testament. It is possible that this was the first book of the New Testament to have been written, sometime between A. D. 40 and 50. The letter was geared to the twelve tribes, and this could mean either the people of Israel that had now become followers of Christ or the church in a symbolic sense. It was meant to warn them against some of the habits they had developed which were undermining them: favoritism, slander, pride, the misuse of wealth, and impatience.The ultimate goal of the letter was to demonstr ate that, though one can believe in Christ, it is still possible to live the wrong way. However, it also shows that it is possible to turn belief in the right doctrine into right living. 1 Peter This first letter written by Peter is the third of eight additional letters within the New Testament. Composed sometime between A. D. 60 to 64, and geared to the Christians scattered throughout Asia Minor (modern Turkey), the letter was meant to encourage the early Christians in the face of the continual persecution they were facing.This persecution had scattered them, thus spreading their belief in Christ; however, some were beginning to feel abandoned by God. To understand why they would feel this way, the letter must be placed in its historical setting. When Christianity first emerged, the Roman government had allowed early Christians the same type of religious freedom they allowed the Jews. However, as tensions grew between Jewish and Christian beliefs, the tolerance for Christianity beg an decreasing. This decreased tolerance led to the Roman government’s persecution of Christians, including Peter, who endured imprisonment and beatings for his faith.Thus, the goal of the letter is to demonstrate how faith is tested through suffering, and can be strengthened by it. 2 Peter This second letter written by Peter is the fourth of eight additional letters within the New Testament. It was geared to the same people – Christians scattered throughout Asia Minor – and was written in Rome sometime between A. D. 64 and 68. This time, the purpose of the letter was to warn the people against false teachers that had begun to infiltrate various Christian communities.In doing so, Peter hoped that the warning would prevent the Christians from being taken in by the false teachings, and instead remain true and faithful to the word of God. Several key themes can be found throughout the letter: the need and importance of developing a Christian character, the importanc e of holding on to the truth, warnings against false teachers and prophets, and advice on how to live a life that is based on the return of Christ to Earth. 1 John The first of a series of letters written by John, who also wrote one of the four gospels, it is the fifth of eight additional letters within the New Testament.Written sometime in the A. D. 80s, when John was an old man, the letter was geared to a group of Christian communities near Ephesus. These communities were part of a springing up of Christian communities emerging after the first major wave of persecution Christians endured during the rule of the Roman Emperor Nero. Possibly the last surviving apostle, John wrote this to encourage these new Christian communities, and also as a sort of history and examination of the gains and losses of the early Christian church.Some of the themes covered in the letter include the following: the fact that God is the light and his followers must walk in that light to maintain a bond wi th him; loving your fellow man as Christ taught; having faith in the Son of God – Christ; and avoidance of anything that attempts to refute the teachings of God. He concludes by restating that Christians are the children of God, and that through Christ, we have an understanding of who God is and of the promise of eternal life he offers to those who believe in him. 2 JohnThe second of a series of letters written by John, it is the sixth of eight additional letters within the New Testament. It was most likely written shortly after the first letter, and was most likely meant to accompany the first letter. His goal in writing it was to help renew the commitment the Christians made to follow Christ by further exposure of false teachings, and to also encourage them to remain faithful to God. Thus, many of the themes covered in the first letter are touched on within this short follow-up letter.Also, it is something of a challenge to those who believe in God to make sure they are fir m in their faith. 3 John The last of a series of letters written by John, it is the seventh of eight additional letters within the New Testament. It was most likely written shortly after the second letter. However, unlike the first two geared to Christian communities in general, this letter is written specifically to Gaius, a friend of John’s. The letter served to commend Gaius for his faithful support of legitimate teachers, while warning him against the actions of a strong-minded leader by the name of Diotrephes.Again, many of the same themes touched on in the first letter are touched on in this letter. However, the primary focus is on walking in the light of God and living according to his teachings. Jude The last of eight additional letters, it was written by Jude, the half-brother of Jesus and full brother of James. Composed sometime around A. D. 65 or possibly earlier, Jude wrote it because he was concerned about the possibility of Christians being drawn to and taken in by the many false doctrines being put forth at the time.Therefore, he urged believes to maintain and fight for the Christian faith. Although brief, the letter provides direct warnings against turning away from God, while also touching on the many promises a life lived in the word of God can offer. Revelation The final book of the New Testament, and of the Bible as a whole, this was most likely written by John sometime around A. D. 90 to 96. The book went to the seven Christian communities located in Asia Minor, to warn them against letting go of their faith in Christ.It also reassured them of the ultimate victory of those who remain faithful over those who choose to live immorally. The text is considered to be apocalyptic narrative, due to its many prophecies. There is a great deal of imagery and symbolism, which are used to demonstrate how evil within the world will be replaced with the good and peacefulness of the kingdom of God. Thus, the ultimate message is that, ultimately, go od will defeat evil, and the world will revert back to what it had been before Adam and Eve committed the first sin.